India Circa 600BC-323 BC

Dateline: Circa 600BC-323 BC

The Aryan migrators were soon well settled in India. They extended their settlements to the fertile Ganges, and continually pushed east. Soon small kingdoms and republics began emerging in the plains and many city states came up as well. As the society grew more organized tribal leadership was now slowly being replaced by organized monarchy. Essentially the process was simple, when a particular tribe settled down and prospered in an area, they set up some form of monarchical government to protect and administer the area. Such monarchies were concentrated particularly in the Ganga plains as were several city states. The republics however were in the foothills of the Himalayas, in North Western India and in Punjab. Republics generally occupied the less fertile hill areas and they were probably established before monarchies, for it would take the Aryans some time before they could penetrate the dense jungles of the plains. These republics were also home to those who rebelled against the increasing power of the monarch and hence went up to the mountains to live separately. The republics maintained a more traditional Vedic system. The republics were also more democratic than the monarchies. Republics encouraged the expression of

indvidual and unorthodox views. Two great men came from republics, Prince Siddartha or the Buddha who founded Buddhism and Mahavir, the founder of the religion of Jainism.

The republics were composed of usually a single tribe or a group of similar tribes. As a result the republic still maintained a lot of the tribal traditions and bonds. Popular assemblies remained and these were used to represent the views of the tribes. In the monarchies however, since they were based more on geographical boundaries, did not retain tribal loyalties, which instead were now replaced by caste loyalties. A fall out of the political expansion of the monarchies was the weakening of popular assemblies and democratic process, since greater distances made meetings more difficult. The republics on the other hand, which covered a smaller geographical area retained popular governments which were able to function fairly efficiently. The monarchies saw greater erosion of democratic tradition with the monarch becoming almost god like through the efforts of the priests, who naturally now rose to high positions. The popular assemblies of the earlier Vedic times more or less declined in the monarchies.

The government of the republics was usually a federation, with the various tribes or families represented in the public assembly, which would administer the republic. It was presided over by an elected representative known as the raja which although means king was more of a chief, for the post was not hereditary and he could be removed by the assembly. All matters would be put before the assembly and a unanimous decision was arrived at, if this was not possible the matter would be put to vote. The administration was handled by a number of officials like the assistants to the chief, the treasurer, the commander of the army etc. There was also an established judicial system which was looked after by a hierarchy of seven officials. Social and political power however essentially lay with the raja and the members of the assembly.

Agriculture had now replaced cattle rearing as the primary occupation of the people. Land was either owned by the village as a whole, or in some cases a tribal chief owned a large tract of land and hired labour to cultivate it. Land while an important source of revenue for the state, was not the only source of income.. Towns had come up and became centers of industry and trade. These had grown out of villages that had specialized in a particular field and soon turned into prosperous economic centers. A number of such towns developed into city states or kingdoms. Towns were also important to republics who also had a number of towns within their state. They encouraged artisans and traders for they realized that economic prosperity was essential for their success.

The two systems, the monarchies and the republics co-existed and often kingdoms would switch from one system to the other, although this was rare in the predominantly monarchical Ganges plains. In time however monarchies emerged more dominant as a result of the decline of the tribal culture and the establishment of permanent agricultural settlements. A number of monarchical kingdoms and city states emerged in the plains of the Ganges. A number of kingdoms vied for control of the Ganges plains, an area of tremendous economic and political importance. The kingdom of Magadha emerged as the dominant force in the region and was one of the first major kingdoms of the North India. It was started by Bimbisara, a man of tremendous determination and foresight, who rose to power sometime in the middle of the sixth century BC. Through astute diplomatic moves and marriage alliances he was able to overpower most of his rivals and make Magadha the paramount power in the region. Bimbisara was one of the earliest Indian kings to realize the benefits of an organized administrative set up. He took tremendous interest in the organization of his government, often hand picking ministers. He always listened to the advice of his ministers before reaching decisions. A number of officers were recruited and were assigned different responsibilities. The capital of the kingdom of Magadha was a beautiful city called Rajagriha surrounded by five hills which provided a natural defense. This city would later became the fabulous capital city of the Mauryas, Patliputra. Bimbisara was succeeded by his son Ajatashastru who impatient to rule murdered his father and became king. He continued the expansionist policies of his father and extended the Magadha kingdom, fulfilling Bimbisara's dream of making it the most powerful force in the Ganges valley. Magadha also symbolized a victory for the monarchical system. Magadha was fortunate, for it was based in an area of tremendous natural wealth. Vast forests, the navigable Ganges river and substantial mineral and metal deposits were all important factors behind its success. After the death of Ajatashatru in 461 BC Magadha declined because of a series of incapable successors. The people of Magadha finally overthrew the ruling dynasty and instated a viceroy, Shishunaga as king. For the next hundred years or so there would be a number of kings and dynasties and a general realignment of powers in the Ganges valley. Alexander would enter India sometime in the 3rd Century BC, a time which would also mark the rise of a new Indian king, Chandgraupta Maurya. Eventually he would emerge as the new undisputed ruler of the region, and would found the mighty Mauryan empire that would encompass the entire country.

This period saw the birth of the two new religions, Jainism and Buddhism, the latter more famous and a major Asian religion even today. They were the result of a process that rejected the orthodox ideas that had crept into Hinduism and instead proposed their own set of ideas. Jainism was started by Mahavira who at the age of thirty renounced his family and became an ascetic. He wandered for twelve years searching for the truth and finally gained enlightenment. With the knowledge he now possessed he began teaching and soon Jainism spread to various parts of the country. Jainism found a lot of support within the trading community where it quickly spread. The other religion founded during this time was Buddhism, by Prince Siddartha or the Buddha (the enlightened one). Buddha's early life was one of a secluded existence within the palace, from which one day he was able to escape. The realities of the outside world were a shock, for in the luxurious realm of the palace he had not been exposed to the pain and suffering he observed. This troubled him deeply and shortly after returning to the palace he left one night to become an ascetic. After spending six years as an ascetic he realized that asceticism was not the path through which he would be able to seek enlightenment and hence discarded it. He then began meditation and on the forty ninth day he received enlightenment and was known as the Buddha from then on. Buddha then travelled far and wide and spread his religion. It received great patronage during the time of Ashoka, the great Maurya king. Eventually it would decline in India but not before spreading to many parts of Asia, where it is still flourishing.

and became an ascetic. He wandered for twelve years searching for the truth and finally gained enlightenment. With the knowledge he now possessed he began teaching and soon Jainism spread to various parts of the country. Jainism found a lot of support within the trading community where it quickly spread. The other religion founded during this time was Buddhism, by Prince Siddartha or the Buddha (the enlightened one). Buddha's early life was one of a secluded existence within the palace, from which one day he was able to escape. The realities of the outside world were a shock, for in the luxurious realm of the palace he had not been exposed to the pain and suffering he observed. This troubled him deeply and shortly after returning to the palace he left one night to become an ascetic. After spending six years as an ascetic he realized that asceticism was not the path through which he would be able to seek enlightenment and hence discarded it. He then began meditation and on the forty ninth day he received enlightenment and was known as the Buddha from then on. Buddha then travelled far and wide and spread his religion. It received great patronage during the time of Ashoka, the great Maurya king. Eventually it would decline in India but not before spreading to many parts of Asia, where it is still flourishing.