Dateline: 185BC-320AD
After the decline of the Mauryan empire, India once again disintegrated into a number of smaller kingdoms. The territorial integration that the Maurya's empire had achieved was now lost with a number of splinter kingdoms competing with each other to become the dominant force. For the next half a millennia the country would lapse into political anarchy, which also led to a stagnation of cultural development, an inevitable result of the non existence of any major empire. Many Indian and foreign kings controlled parts of the former Mauryan empire. Some of the important kingdoms that came up during this time were the Kushanas and the Satavahanas. A set of people known as the Indo-Greeks, descendants of Greeks who had come with Alexander, managed to establish themselves in parts of the country. This period often referred to as the dark ages, for little progress was made in most fields lasted for almost five hundred years and ended with the classical golden age of the Guptas.
Trade and the economy however continued to flourish despite the bleak political set up. The guilds continued from the Mauryan era and remained an important part of the economy. They were now quite
influential and had an effect on the social organization of the time. Most artisans worked for the guilds, as it was very difficult for someone to compete against them. Job security and the social status which came with being a member of a guild was also an added incentive. The guilds were very organized, with fixed rules of working. Products would have to meet a certain quality standard and the prices were fixed so that the interests of the consumer as well as the producer were taken care of. Guilds were administered through their own courts, and implemented their own set of laws amongst their members. The guilds had a direct influence on the lives of its members, for certain activities they would require the permission of the guild before they could proceed. The guilds were often very wealthy and sponsored the construction of temples. This resulted in a fair amount of work for labour and artisans and they formed their own worker co-operatives. Guilds were also imparting technical education. Since they usually specialized in certain types of skills, they became centers of learning and of course future employment for prospective applicants. As a result of these policies, tremendous progress was made in the respective fields, with the guilds perfecting their work. Hence the influence of the guilds began to extend beyond its members, besides the economic power it had, it now also had considerable influence on society. Industry was now getting more and more localized, usually they were found in areas where the raw material was found. The textile industry was widespread with different regions producing different types of cloths, with most of them finding a market throughout the country. Magadha remained an important source of minerals, especially iron. Trade was one area where there was considerable progress during this time. Sea trade had by now become accepted as a reliable, cost effective and speedy form of transport. In South India there was a lot of development taking place in this area where records indicate the establishment of harbors, docks, light houses, custom officers, basically all the essential buildings required for a port city. Usually Indians did not venture into the sea trade business themselves, allowing foreign ships to move their goods. Some South Indian kings like the Cholas however maintained a small naval fleet which they used to trade with various parts of Asia. The most profitable sea trade of the time was done with Rome and various merchants from that region had offices in South India. The regular sea trade had another effect, it resulted in tremendous cultural interaction. India was a hub for trade between Asia and Europe and people from these parts of the world were present in India. A number of foreigners settled down in India and adapted to the Indian customs. India ideas too spread to many parts of Asia and Europe. India and China especially had a lot of contact between each other, and the frequent journeys that Indian ships made to Chinese ports resulted in them visiting many other neighboring Asian countries. Indian culture 
spread to several Asian countries during this period. Astronomy and medicine benefited tremendously as a result of the increasing familiarly with other parts of the world. Navigating across the high seas required one to be aware of the position of stars, and hence the mercantile community financed astronomical studies. Communication with other parts of the world, further added to their knowledge. Indian medicine of the time was based on the idea that a body remained healthy if it had the correct balance of air, bile and phlegm. Several medical encyclopedias were written during this period, which help us understand the knowledge that Indian doctors had. Indian medicine had spread to other parts of the world as well, for the Greek botanist Theophrastus gives a detailed account of the medicinal value of a number of Indian herbs and plants in his book History of Plants.
spread to several Asian countries during this period. Astronomy and medicine benefited tremendously as a result of the increasing familiarly with other parts of the world. Navigating across the high seas required one to be aware of the position of stars, and hence the mercantile community financed astronomical studies. Communication with other parts of the world, further added to their knowledge. Indian medicine of the time was based on the idea that a body remained healthy if it had the correct balance of air, bile and phlegm. Several medical encyclopedias were written during this period, which help us understand the knowledge that Indian doctors had. Indian medicine had spread to other parts of the world as well, for the Greek botanist Theophrastus gives a detailed account of the medicinal value of a number of Indian herbs and plants in his book History of Plants. The level of education a person could obtain at this time depended on the caste of the individual. Formal education focussed on grammar and the study of Vedic texts. Brahmins had access to all knowledge, with this level of access diminishing as one moved down the caste system. However education in practical or technical areas was open to all, with the guilds being an important source of such education. Buddhist monasteries also were involved in education, teaching grammar and medicine amongst others. They tended to follow a less orthodox approach to formal education. During this period there was a lot of activity in the field of literature. The books written during this period covered a variety of subjects like, Dharamshashtras (which talked about the laws of society and the division of castes), drama, poetry etc. Most of the artistic expression of this age centered around Buddhism, and was possible because of the financing from wealthy merchants, guilds and royal donations. The structures constructed during this period were the Buddhist stupas and cave temples. The stupa was a hemispherical dome in which a sacred relic was kept. These usually were articles used by a famous monk or saint, and in some cases sacred texts were kept. The material was usually kept in a casket, which was placed in a smaller chamber at the center of the base of the stupa. Around the stupa ran a fenced path. At the four compass points (north, south, east and west) there was a break in the railing, and a gateway was constructed, on which sculptors and artists could do decorative work. The cave temples were usually dug out of hill sides. A cave temple would try to emulate the stupa structure. A cave temple is entered through a rectangle entrance, which then leads to hall of worship. The hall of worship is also a rectangle, but at the end is a miniature stupa. Near the caves there are a series of living quarters created by carving out the hillside. There was a lot of work in sculpture during this period, and two prominent styles (also known as schools) of art came up during this time, the Mathura and the Gandhara schools. The Mathura school is credited with being the first to produce an image of the Buddha. This marked a change from the earlier practice of representing his presence with the use of various symbols. The Mathura school mainly worked with sandstone and their sculptures had a earthy quality to them. The Gandhara school of art, was a result of the fusion between Indian and Greek ideas. The sculptures they made tended to have a more serene image of the Buddha. Popular materials used were stone and terra-cotta, with the later popular amongst those who could not afford stone. Images of the mother goddess were also abundant during this period, as her worship remained a part of the religious practices of the people.
Religion during this period saw fair amount of change. In the religion of Buddhism, the followers began to argue over the true meaning of the teachings of the Buddha. In order to try and resolve these disputes a number of councils were set up. The original teachings of the Buddha were now being re-interpreted. For instance the Buddha had urged his followers not to worship him as a God. However by the first century AD he was being represented in sculptures and was worshipped like a God. The concept of 
bodhisattva also came up at this time. Buddhists believe that one goes through multiple births and re-births until one achieves nirvana and is released from this cycle. Bodhisatvvas are people who voluntarily opt for re-birth, despite achieving nirvana, in order to serve humanity. Eventually significant differences cropped up between the original and new teachings, and the councils could no longer resolve the issues satisfactorily. Sometime early in the second century AD, the religion split into two sects, the Hinayana and the Mahayanahe former believed in the original teachings of the Buddha, while the latter accepted the new ideas. Meanwhile Jainism was also going through a period of change. The religion also split into two sects, the Digambara sect and the Shevtambara sect. The former was the more orthodox of the two. Support for Jainism however remained fairly constant since the religion was essentially still faithful to the original teachings of Mahavira. Hinduism meanwhile continued its evolutionarily pattern, acquiring some of the traits found in it today. It is important to understand that unlike most other religions, Hinduism is not a formal religion. It does not have a founder, or precise date of beginning. Nor does it have a standardized holy book. It is more a way of life, which has evolved in the Indian sub continent over the last five thousand years. Hinduism perhaps is a good example of a popular phrase, "Nothing is constant, except change". During this period a number of the Vedic traditions disappeared with new ones taking their place. Or in some cases the old Gods were brought back with newer attributes. There also was a gradual shift away from ritualism, and the idea that a devotee could have a personal relationship with God began to spread. With the well developed trade relations that India had with several parts of the 
world, a natural consequence of the arrival of foreigners would be their religious beliefs. Hence Christianity made its appearance in India sometime around the first century AD. It is believed that one of the main disciples of Jesus Christ, St Thomas came to India sometime in the first century and established the religion in the country.
bodhisattva also came up at this time. Buddhists believe that one goes through multiple births and re-births until one achieves nirvana and is released from this cycle. Bodhisatvvas are people who voluntarily opt for re-birth, despite achieving nirvana, in order to serve humanity. Eventually significant differences cropped up between the original and new teachings, and the councils could no longer resolve the issues satisfactorily. Sometime early in the second century AD, the religion split into two sects, the Hinayana and the Mahayanahe former believed in the original teachings of the Buddha, while the latter accepted the new ideas. Meanwhile Jainism was also going through a period of change. The religion also split into two sects, the Digambara sect and the Shevtambara sect. The former was the more orthodox of the two. Support for Jainism however remained fairly constant since the religion was essentially still faithful to the original teachings of Mahavira. Hinduism meanwhile continued its evolutionarily pattern, acquiring some of the traits found in it today. It is important to understand that unlike most other religions, Hinduism is not a formal religion. It does not have a founder, or precise date of beginning. Nor does it have a standardized holy book. It is more a way of life, which has evolved in the Indian sub continent over the last five thousand years. Hinduism perhaps is a good example of a popular phrase, "Nothing is constant, except change". During this period a number of the Vedic traditions disappeared with new ones taking their place. Or in some cases the old Gods were brought back with newer attributes. There also was a gradual shift away from ritualism, and the idea that a devotee could have a personal relationship with God began to spread. With the well developed trade relations that India had with several parts of the world, a natural consequence of the arrival of foreigners would be their religious beliefs. Hence Christianity made its appearance in India sometime around the first century AD. It is believed that one of the main disciples of Jesus Christ, St Thomas came to India sometime in the first century and established the religion in the country. ide. There was a lot of work in sculpture during this period, and two prominent styles (also known as schools) of art came up during this time, the Mathura and the Gandhara schools. The Mathura school is credited with being the first to produce an image of the Buddha. This marked a change from the earlier practice of representing his presence with the use of various symbols. The Mathura school mainly worked with sandstone and their sculptures had a earthy quality to them. The Gandhara school of art, was a result of the fusion between Indian and Greek ideas. The sculptures they made tended to have a more serene image of the Buddha. Popular materials used were stone and terra-cotta, with the later popular amongst those who could not afford stone. Images of the mother goddess were also abundant during this period, as her worship remained a part of the religious practices of the people.
Religion during this period saw fair amount of change. In the religion of Buddhism, the followers began to argue over the true meaning of the teachings of the Buddha. In order to try and resolve these disputes a number of councils were set up. The original teachings of the Buddha were now being re-interpreted. For instance the Buddha had urged his followers not to worship him as a God. However by the first century AD he was being represented in sculptures and was worshipped like a God. The concept of bodhisattva also came up at this time. Buddhists believe that one goes through multiple births and re-births until one achieves nirvana and is released from this cycle. Bodhisatvvas are people who voluntarily opt for re-birth, despite achieving nirvana, in order to serve humanity. Eventually significant differences cropped up between the original and new teachings, and the councils could no longer resolve the issues satisfactorily. Sometime early in the second century AD, the religion split into two sects, the Hinayana and the Mahayanahe former believed in the original teachings of the Buddha, while the latter accepted the new ideas. Meanwhile Jainism was also going through a period of change. The religion also split into two sects, the Digambara sect and the Shevtambara sect. The former was the more orthodox of the two. Support for Jainism however remained fairly constant since the religion was essentially still faithful to the original teachings of Mahavira. Hinduism meanwhile continued its evolutionarily pattern, acquiring some of the traits found in it today. It is important to understand that unlike most other religions, Hinduism is not a formal religion. It does not have a founder, or precise date of beginning. Nor does it have a standardized holy book. It is more a way of life, which has evolved in the Indian sub continent over the last five thousand years. Hinduism perhaps is a good example of a popular phrase, "Nothing is constant, except change". During this period a number of the Vedic traditions disappeared with new ones taking their place. Or in some cases the old Gods were brought back with newer attributes. There also was a gradual shift away from ritualism, and the idea that a devotee could have a personal relationship with God began to spread. With the well developed trade relations that India had with several parts of the world, a natural consequence of the arrival of foreigners would be their religious beliefs. Hence Christianity made its appearance in India sometime around the first century AD. It is believed that one of the main disciples of Jesus Christ, St Thomas came to India sometime in the first century and established the religion in the country.
bodhisattva also came up at this time. Buddhists believe that one goes through multiple births and re-births until one achieves nirvana and is released from this cycle. Bodhisatvvas are people who voluntarily opt for re-birth, despite achieving nirvana, in order to serve humanity. Eventually significant differences cropped up between the original and new teachings, and the councils could no longer resolve the issues satisfactorily. Sometime early in the second century AD, the religion split into two sects, the Hinayana and the Mahayanahe former believed in the original teachings of the Buddha, while the latter accepted the new ideas. Meanwhile Jainism was also going through a period of change. The religion also split into two sects, the Digambara sect and the Shevtambara sect. The former was the more orthodox of the two. Support for Jainism however remained fairly constant since the religion was essentially still faithful to the original teachings of Mahavira. Hinduism meanwhile continued its evolutionarily pattern, acquiring some of the traits found in it today. It is important to understand that unlike most other religions, Hinduism is not a formal religion. It does not have a founder, or precise date of beginning. Nor does it have a standardized holy book. It is more a way of life, which has evolved in the Indian sub continent over the last five thousand years. Hinduism perhaps is a good example of a popular phrase, "Nothing is constant, except change". During this period a number of the Vedic traditions disappeared with new ones taking their place. Or in some cases the old Gods were brought back with newer attributes. There also was a gradual shift away from ritualism, and the idea that a devotee could have a personal relationship with God began to spread. With the well developed trade relations that India had with several parts of the world, a natural consequence of the arrival of foreigners would be their religious beliefs. Hence Christianity made its appearance in India sometime around the first century AD. It is believed that one of the main disciples of Jesus Christ, St Thomas came to India sometime in the first century and established the religion in the country. 
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