The Aryan civilization produced vast volumes of text, which not only have helped us shed light on their life, but have also contributed significantly to Indian thought and beliefs. The earliest literary source of the period is the Rig Veda. Besides the Rig Veda, there is the Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas. The word Veda means knowledge. The great Indian epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were also composed during this period. Besides these there a few more books like the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Puranas along with the epics. The entire collection is referred to as Vedic Literature. Vedic Literature remained unwritten for a long time and was passed orally from generation to generation until several centuries later it was finally written down. This literature is the oldest source of information which we have for the period, and is a reliable source of information about their civilization. We shall take a brief look at Vedic Literature.
Rig Veda: This the oldest piece of work in Vedic Literature. It is a set of ten books which contain a thousand and twenty eight hymns. It has many hymns dedicated to God, many of which are still recited in Hindu households. It is an important source of information on the Vedic religion and their Gods as well as presents a detailed account of the life of the people at that time.
Sama Veda: This Veda takes many of the hymns from the Rig Veda and is set to music. It focuses mainly on Soma sacrifice, and was used solely by priests in performing the relevant rituals. It is an important source of the music of the ancient Aryans.
Yajur Veda: The Yajur Veda focuses mainly on hymns that concern sacrifices. It tells about the knowledge the Aryans had acquired about sacrifices. Since it is of a later date then the Rig Veda, it reflects the changes in society that have taken place since that period.
Atharva Veda: This Veda contains hymns on three topics gnana (knowledge), karma (deeds), upasana (invocation). This Veda is also important for understanding the level of development of science in India. It also contains a collection of spells and charms which were used by the Aryans to attain success in life, or ward off evil spirits. Another significant feature of this Veda is that it was composed much later than some of the others, and appears to be a synthesis of Aryan and non-Aryan ideas, which indicates that the synthesis of the respective cultures was taking place.
The four Vedas each had a similar structure, they were divided into three parts
Samhitas: They are the verses which constitute the hymn part of the Vedas
Brahmanas: This section is written in prose and is meant to be a commentary on the Veda. The aim of this section was to enable the common people to understand the ideas that the Veda was trying to convey. It illustrates the idea of the Vedas through stories making it more interesting and easy for people to understand.
Aranyakas: These are the concluding portions of the Brahmanas They were also known as 'forest books' for they deal with mysticism and philosophy. They emphasize on the ideas of God, soul, world and man.
The Upanishads: These are also known as the Vedanta and they deal with Indian philosophy. They criticize the performance of elaborate rituals and sacrifices and advocate a simpler approach of reaching God. They emphasize on the ideas of karma and the right knowledge. They contain information on prakriti (matter), atman (soul) and brahma (God), mukti (salvation), maya (illusion) and the transmigration of the soul. The Upanishads are highly regarded as a source of philosophy and wisdom and have been translated into several languages throughout the world.
The Puranas: The word Purana means 'Ancient Lore'. They are an in depth historical account of the time, spanning eighteen volumes. They are an important source of historical information. They talk about various spheres of the ancient world, including the origin of the world, the Gods and the historical and mythological information of the period. They act as an important source for understanding the history of ancient dynasties and cultures of India.
The Vedangas: This is known as the six limbs of the Vedas. They were written a later stage by scholars who had studies the Vedas. They discuss the Vedas in simpler language and also deal with topics like the pronunciation of words, grammar, astronomy and rituals.
The Upvedas: These are set of books that deal with secular subjects. The most famous of these are the Ayurveda, the ancient form of Indian medicine that is gaining increasing acceptance and popularity today. There are a few more like the Dhanurveda that deals with the art of warfare, the Gandharva Veda which deals with music and the Shilpa Veda that deals with architecture.
Sutras: This deals with the later Vedic period and focuses on the customs of that period, including the rituals and sacrifices. It also deals with civil, criminal and moral laws.
Ramayana
The Ramayana, an epic written by the poet Valmiki, is centered around the Rama, the heir to the throne of the kingdom of Kosala. He was married to Sita, the princess of Videha. Rama's stepmother however wanted her own son to succeed to the throne and by skilful plotting she got Rama, Sita and his brother Lakshmana banished from the kingdom for fourteen years. Their exile took them all over the country, where they spent years wandering and living like hermits. Ravana, the demon king of Lanka (what is now the country of Sri Lanka) however kidnapped Sita and took her away across the sea in a flying chariot, to his island kingdom. Rama then with the assistance of Hanuman organized an army and successfully defeated and killed Ravana. Sita was re-united with Rama, and with their fourteen year exile over, they returned to the kingdom of Kosala, where he was welcomed as the new king. The arrival of Rama back home is marked by Diwali, the festival of lights. Rama's reign was associated with great prosperity and justice. The Ramarajya (the reign of Rama) is used till this day to describe a Utopian state.
The epic tells us of the geographical expansion of the Aryans. Not only had they conquered the Ganges plains but had also gone as far South into peninsular India to be aware of the island of Sri Lanka.
Mahabharata
The great epic, Mahabharata is written in a long series of couplets and has the unique distinction of being the longest poem in the world, totalling a mind boggling 106,000 verses. The Mahabharata is based on a struggle for the control of a kingdom called Kuru in the fertile region around Delhi. On one side were the Kauravas, who were the hundred sons of the Dhritrashtra and the Pandavas, their five cousins. The Pandavas were to become the next kings since Dhritashtra was blind and therefore not eligible to rule. The accession of the Pandavas to the throne of Kuru, was resented by the Kauravas. Eventually Dhritashtra, keen to avoid a conflict offered a compromise. He divided the kingdom and gave half to the Pandavas and the other half to the Kauravas. The Pandavas set up their capital in Indraprastha and the Kauravas set up theirs at Hastinapur. However the arrangement failed to satisfy the Kauravas. They challenged the Pandavas to a gambling match which the Pandavas lost. They were then exiled for thirteen years, and according to the agreement, upon returning they would resume ruling their portion of the kingdom. The Pandavas complied, and returned after thirteen years to find the Kauravas were unwilling to let them rule. As a result the Pandavas decided to fight a war with the Kauravas, which was held at Kurukshetra and which lasted eighteen days. The Pandavas emerged victorious and became the supreme rulers of the kingdom. Their reign was long and peaceful.
s, their five cousins. The Pandavas were to become the next kings since Dhritashtra was blind and therefore not eligible to rule. The accession of the Pandavas to the throne of Kuru, was resented by the Kauravas. Eventually Dhritashtra, keen to avoid a conflict offered a compromise. He divided the kingdom and gave half to the Pandavas and the other half to the Kauravas. The Pandavas set up their capital in Indraprastha and the Kauravas set up theirs at Hastinapur. However the arrangement failed to satisfy the Kauravas. They challenged the Pandavas to a gambling match which the Pandavas lost. They were then exiled for thirteen years, and according to the agreement, upon returning they would resume ruling their portion of the kingdom. The Pandavas complied, and returned after thirteen years to find the Kauravas were unwilling to let them rule. As a result the Pandavas decided to fight a war with the Kauravas, which was held at Kurukshetra and which lasted eighteen days. The Pandavas emerged victorious and became the supreme rulers of the kingdom. Their reign was long and peaceful.
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